Buoyant ascent rate profiles for the MK10 and MK11 submarine escape and immersion equipment.

Introduction: Since the U.S. Navy transitioned from the MK10 to the MK11 submarine escape and immersion equipment (SEIE), there has been an increase in the incident rate of pulmonary barotrauma during submarine escape training. This study compares the ascent rate profiles of the MK10 and MK11 SEIE to determine if ascent rate differences between the escape suits are associated with increased pulmonary barotraumas. Methods: Buoyant ascent rates of the MK10 and MK11 SEIE were compared using weighted manikins equivalent to the 1st, 50th, and 99th percentile body weight of a submariner. Human ascents using the MK11 (n=126) were compared to human ascents in the same trainer wearing the MK10 (n=124). Results: Manikin mean ascent times were faster for the MK10 than the MK11 (5.19 seconds vs 5.28 seconds, p ≺ 0.05). Terminal velocity (Vt) was affected by manikin weight (p ≺ 0.001). Human trials confirmed the manikin results. The average mean ascent velocity for the MK10 group was 0.155 meters/ second faster than the MK11 group's mean ascent velocity (p ≺ 0.001). Mean ascent velocity was inversely correlated with all anthropometrics for the MK10 group (p ≺ 0.01). Neither height nor body mass index showed a significant association with mean ascent velocity for the MK11 group. Conclusions: The Vt of buoyant ascents is significantly affected by body weight. As the mean ascent rate of the MK11 is slower than that of the MK10, ascent rate profile differences between the suits do not appear to explain the recent increase in pulmonary barotrauma incident rates during escape training.

Submarine medicine: An overview of the unique challenges, medical concerns, and gaps.

Submariners face many challenges. For example, they "live where they work" and can be called to duty anytime. They have limited access to open space, natural settings, fresh air, fresh food, sunlight, privacy, exercise, and outside communication. They support a wider range of missions than occur aboard most other Navy vessels. At sea or on shore, submariners work long hours under conditions with little margin for error. They may traverse remote or disputed areas of the ocean far from rescue assets, and must remain vigilant for potential encounters with hostile forces, onboard fires, anomalies in the breathing atmosphere, leaks, undersea collisions, or radiation exposures. If any of these factors cause casualties, the Independent Duty Corpsman (with intermittent advice from shore-based medical personnel), must be ready to provide aid as long as necessary. The challenges of submarine service led to the growth of the unique field of submarine medicine, which has maintained an excellent record of health and safety. This review introduces the field of submarine medicine as practiced in the U.S. Navy, describing its major concerns, giving an overview of the operation of a submarine medical department, and identifying several medical gaps that researchers are working to fill. Submarine medicine already has a stellar record in terms of radiation and atmospheric safety and has made strides in fatigue management. Ongoing work will deliver improved psychological screening and support tools. This report summarizes developments in these and other areas of submarine medicine.

Between the devil and the deep blue sea: A review of 25 modern naval mass casualty incidents with implications for future Distributed Maritime Operations.

ABSTRACT: In the future, United States Navy Role 1 and Role 2 shipboard medical departments will be caring for patients during Distributed Maritime Operations in both contested and noncontested austere environments; likely for prolonged periods of time. This literature review examines 25 modern naval mass casualty incidents over a 40-year period representative of naval warfare, routine naval operations, and ship-based health service support of air and land operations. Challenges, lessons learned, and injury patterns are identified to prepare afloat medical departments for the future fight. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Literature Review, level V.

"20,000 leagues under the sea": Sleep, cognitive performance, and self-reported recovery status during a 67-day military submarine mission.

Employing a field-based monitoring paradigm, the current study examined day-to-day fluctuations in actigraphy-based sleep recordings, cognitive performance (10-min psychomotor vigilance test; PVT), and self-reported recovery status among 14 submariners throughout a 67-day military mission. Mission averages reflected suboptimal sleep that was of short overall duration (5:46 ± 1:29 h per 24-h day) and relatively low efficiency (82.5 ± 9.9%); suboptimal levels of cognitive performance (PVT mRT = 283 ± 35 ms; PVT response errors = 5.3 ± 4.8); and moderate levels of self-reported recovery. Whilst self-reported recovery status remained stable across mission days, small but consistent day-to-day increases in sleep onset latency and PVT mRT accumulated to reflect meaningful deterioration in sleep and cognitive performance across the entire 67-day mission (i.e., 47% and 16% of the overall mission average, respectively). Future work is required to corroborate the current findings, firmly establish underlying causes, and make evidence-based suggestions for interventions to improve and uphold submariners' health and performance.

Case Series of Arterial Gas Embolism Incidents in U.S. Navy Pressurized Submarine Escape Training From 2018 to 2019.

The goal of Pressurized Submarine Escape Training (PSET) is to prepare future submariners for the physical and mental challenges of escaping a disabled submarine and promote proper handling of the Beaufort Ltd Mk 11 Submarine Escape and Immersion Equipment suit. Training participants are only permitted to enter PSET after strict health screening protocols have been met to optimize trainees' safety. Before PSET, trainees are given detailed, one-on-one instruction on proper ascent mechanics by specially trained Navy Dive instructors. Since the reinstatement of PSET by the U.S. Navy, four incidents of arterial gas embolism (AGE) have occurred in submarine trainees with a 10-year period (2009-2019). Of these four incidents, three were observed within a couple months of each other from 2018 to 2019. A comprehensive review of AGE history, epidemiology, dive physiology, pathophysiology, and management was completed. Prompted by the recent incidents relative to the low reported incidence rate of AGE in historical PSET training, reported potential risk factors were compared with better understand potential etiologies of AGE in already medically screened individuals. Risks and benefits of PSET were listed, compared, and analyzed. The relative safety and cost effectiveness of this rigorous form of training was reconfirmed.

Simulation stress model of the undersea environment activates the central nervous, neuroendocrine and immune systems and anxiety in rats.

The present study was designed to assess the stress responses to a simulation model of the undersea environment that is similar to some undersea working conditions such as submarine rescue, underwater salvage and underwater construction. Restraint, hyperbaric air and immersion were chosen to produce the simulation stress model in rats for four hours. Rats were randomized into five groups: control group, restraint (R) group, hyperbaric air (H) group, restraint plus hyperbaric air (RH) group, and restraint plus hyperbaric air plus immersion (RHI) group. The results showed that the responses to the simulation stress model of the undersea environment induced by R, H, RH and RHI involved the upregulated norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) of the central nervous system (CNS), upregulated adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), corticosterone (CORT) and blood glucose of the neuroendocrine system, upregulated interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) of the immune system, and increased anxiety in rats. Compared with hyperbaric air, restraint tended to activate stronger stress responses. Conclusively, this work established a simulation stress model of the undersea environment induced by restraint, hyperbaric air and immersion. It further provided experimental data of such a model that showed significant activation of the CNS, neuroendocrine and immune systems and anxiety in rats. In this experiment we provided an experimental basis for undersea work such as working aboard a submarine.

Human thermoregulation during prolonged exposure to warm and extremely humid environments expected to occur in disabled submarine scenarios.

Military and civilian emergency situations often involve prolonged exposures to warm and very humid environments. We tested the hypothesis that increases in core temperature and body fluid losses during prolonged exposure to warm and very humid environments are dependent on dry bulb temperature. On three occasions, 15 healthy males (23 ± 3 yr) sat in 32.1 ± 0.1°C, 33.1 ± 0.2°C, or 35.0 ± 0.1°C and 95 ± 2% relative humidity normobaric environments for 8 h. Core temperature (telemetry pill) and percent change in body weight, an index of changes in total body water occurring secondary to sweat loss, were measured every hour. Linear regression models were fit to core temperature (over the final 4 h) and percent changes in body weight (over the entire 8 h) for each subject. These equations were used to predict core temperature and percent changes in body weight for up to 24 h. At the end of the 8-h exposure, core temperature was higher in 35°C (38.2 ± 0.4°C, P < 0.01) compared with 32°C (37.2 ± 0.2°C) and 33°C (37.5 ± 0.2°C). At this time, percent changes in body weight were greater in 35°C (-1.9 ± 0.5%) compared with 32°C (-1.4 ± 0.3%, P < 0.01) but not 33°C (-1.6 ± 0.6%, P = 0.17). At 24 h, predicted core temperature was higher in 35°C (39.2 ± 1.4°C, P < 0.01) compared with 32°C (37.6 ± 0.9°C) and 33°C (37.5 ± 0.9°C), and predicted percent changes in body weight were greater in 35°C (-6.1 ± 2.4%) compared with 32°C (-4.6 ± 1.5%, P = 0.04) but not 33°C (-5.3 ± 2.0%, P = 0.43). Prolonged exposure to 35°C, but not 32°C or 33°C, dry bulb temperatures and high humidity is uncompensable heat stress, which exacerbates body fluid losses.

A preliminary study on submariners with xerostomia after a 3-month deployment.

To observe the clinical manifestations and salivary secretion of xerostomia patients in submariners who engaged in a three-month deployment. The general conditions and clinical examination of the 136 submariners were evaluated, by which the patients with xerostomia were screened out and their clinical manifestations were recorded. Besides, the flow rate of unstimulated saliva and stimulated saliva was measured and calculated. Subsequently, the related factors of xerostomia were quantitatively classified and statistically analyzed. In all the involved submariners, 42 were diagnosed to have xerostomia by physical examination after they returned from the task, among which 71.4% showed a decrease in unstimulated salivary flow rate and it was significantly correlated with the accompanying symptoms and their general conditions. Therefore, it was concluded that the occurrence of xerostomia could be related to the service life and job responsibilities of the submariners. The main manifestations were the reduction of unstimulated salivary secretion and the accompanying clinical symptoms such as cheilosis and angular cheilitis. Noticeably, the high psychological pressure and harsh living conditions need to be concerned, and further study should place more concentrations on these comprehensive influence factors and preventive actions of xerostomia.

Impact of the occupational environment of a submerged submarine on cardiometabolic health of Royal Navy submariners.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of prolonged exposure to a submarine environment on biomarkers of cardiometabolic risk in Royal Navy (RN) submariners. METHODS: Serum lipids (cholesterol (C), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), non-HDL-C), glucose, insulin and anthropometrics were compared within three RN submarine crews before and after submerged patrols of 12 or 6 weeks, and with a crew that remained ashore (SUB-HOME). Dietary intake and activity patterns were self-reported during each patrol. Differences were assessed in crew characteristics using one-way analysis of variance and in serum lipids using paired t-tests. RESULTS: Postpatrol, the mean body weight of submerged crews decreased (-1.4±4.2 kg, p=0.0001), but increased in SUB-HOME (1.9±1.8 kg, p=0.0001). Modest improvements in serum lipids (mean individual change (mmol/L); C=-0.3±0.7, p=0.0001; TG=-0.3±0.7, p=0.0001; HDL-C=-0.1±0.3, p=0.0001; non-HDL-C=-0.2±0.6, p=0.012), glucose (-0.2±0.5, p=0.0001) and insulin (-1.5±4.6 mU/L, p=0.001) were observed in submerged crews. Changes in serum lipids were positively associated with changes in body weight within crews combined. Energy intake was maintained during submerged patrols but was lower compared with non-submerged (11 139±2792 vs. 9617±2466 kJ, p=0.001; 11 062±2775 vs. 9632±2682 kJ, p=0.003). CONCLUSIONS: The environment of a submerged submarine produced no adverse effects on serum biomarkers of cardiometabolic risk in crew. Conversely, modest improvements in these biomarkers were associated with a decrease in body weight.

Prediction of signs/symptoms of decompression sickness following submarine tower escape.

Crew survival in a distressed submarine (DISSUB) scenario may be enhanced by the knowledge of the risks of different types of decompression sickness (DCS) should the crew attempt tower escape. Four models were generated through calibration against DCS outcome data from 3,919 pressure exposures, each for the prediction of one of four categories of DCS: neurological, limb pain, respiratory and cutaneous. The calibration data contained details of human, goat, sheep and pig exposures to raised pressure while breathing air or oxygen/nitrogen mixtures. No exposures had substantial staged decompression or cases of suspected pulmonary barotrauma. DCS risk was scaled between species and with body mass. A parameter was introduced to account for the possibility of the occurrence of some symptom types masking others. The calibrated models were used to estimate likelihood of DCS occurrence for each symptom category following submarine tower escape. Escape depth was found to have a marked effect only on predicted rates of neurological DCS. Saturation at raised internal DISSUB pressure prior to escape was found to affect predicted rates of all symptom types. The iso-risk curves presented are offered as guidance to submarine crews and rescue forces in preparation for, or in the event of, a DISSUB scenario.

Using evidence to support the design of submarine control console workstations.

PURPOSE: This paper outlines an approach to develop practical guidelines to support the design of submarine control console workstations. METHOD: Guideline development was undertaken for 13 physical design criteria, provided to the research team. Data was gathered from four sources: a systematic literature review, relevant standards, population specific anthropometric data, and user focus groups. The systematic review included risk of bias, quality assessment and evidence synthesis. RESULTS & CONCLUSION: The systematic review retrieved 43 relevant articles in relation to seven of the 13 design criteria. Very few high-quality studies were identified. The combined evidence available from each of the four data sources was collated and used to provide a set of guidelines for each of the 13 criteria, highlighting the importance of the use of multiple data sources. This approach has applicability beyond this study where the need exists to collate evidence sources beyond the scientific literature.

Identifying Predictors of Pressurized Submarine Escape Training (PSET) Attrition.

Pressurized Submarine Escape Training (PSET) physically prepares submariners to safely escape a submarine at depth. Failure to complete PSET is not a submarine service disqualification. Serious medical incidents are rare, but the safety record tradeoff has been low throughput. From 2009 to 2015, only 34% of students screened completed PSET. Students may be medically screened out of the training altogether (disqualified), or dropout during the physical training (attrite). Training records from 12,122 U.S. Navy students were used to identify factors contributing to training disqualification and attrition. Multivariate logistic regression model predictors included demographic and screening items. Association to PSET disqualification included cold/congestion/cough (ORadj 12.34), limited duty status (ORadj 4.29), Physical Readiness Test failure (ORadj 3.37), pneumonia or bronchitis in last 2 years (ORadj 3.17) and nervousness or anxiety in tight spaces (ORadj 2.37). Basic Enlisted Submarine School students were more likely to be disqualified and attrite than other submariner groups, and black/African American (ORadj 1.53) students were more likely to attrite than white students. Only cold/congestion/cough (ORadj 1.52), trouble swimming (ORadj 1.53), and screening during cold/flu season (ORadj 1.28), were associated with training attrition. Recommendations to modify screening requirements are listed in conclusions.

Altered Sex Ratios in Offspring of U.S. Submariners Urban Legend or Fact - Do Submariners Have More Daughters?

INTRODUCTION: There is a widespread and long-held belief in the submarine community that submariners father more daughters than the general population. The U.S. Sex Ratio at birth (males/females) has remained around 1.05 since the early 2000s. Limited evidence exists that certain environmental exposures including chemicals, heavy metals, radiation and g-forces may influence sex ratio at birth. A reduction in male births in a population has been associated with lower male fertility. A 1970 single site study showed a higher ratio of female offspring in personnel serving aboard U.S. Navy nuclear submarines than the general population. A 2004 study concluded that this was probably not true. However, this study was small, and did not evaluate the difference between children conceived during sea duty versus shore duty. They did note a higher chance of female offspring correlated with a longer time in the community, as well as an increased ratio in sonar technicians. These findings warrant further investigation. METHODS: An electronic survey was e-mailed to submariners, after receiving required IRB and Navy approvals. Participants were asked birth year, year they entered submarine service, and how many children they had. For each child they were asked sex, child's birth year, mother's birth year, and whether they were on sea duty or shore duty at the time of conception. Those who were on sea duty at the time of conception were asked what their job was, where they were stationed and what type of submarine they were on. Those who were on shore duty at the time of conception were asked whether they were in contact with submarines on a regular basis, whether they were officer or enlisted, and what region they were stationed in for shore duty. RESULTS: Four thousand eight hundred responses were received with a total of 6,958 children included in the analysis. Respondents had a SR of 0.95 compared to 1.05 U.S. population in 2015 (p < 0.0001). Submariners on sea duty had a SR of 0.88 compared to 1.02 on shore duty (p = 0.007). Those who had regular submarine contact on shore duty had a SR of 0.72 compared to 1.17 in those who did not (p < 0.001). Geographical location during shore duty did show differences that were statistically significant (p = 0.018). Geographical location during sea duty did not show significant differences. No significant differences were seen for paternal age, maternal age, job during sea duty, type of submarine assigned to or time in community. CONCLUSION: The submariners surveyed reported greater numbers of daughters than the general population, especially when on sea duty or in regular contact with submarines during shore duty. Further study should be done to confirm results and explore possible etiologies of differences in sex ratio.

The Incidence of Dental Needs During Isolated Missions Compared to Non-isolated Missions: A Systematic Review and Implications for Future Prevention Strategies.

INTRODUCTION: Dental emergencies in isolated groups have always been difficult to treat. Especially in people or groups who cannot be evacuated and who need urgent dental assistance: long-term submarine missions, long-term spaceship trips, military or non-governmental organizations deployments in conflict areas, military maneuvers, etc. The dental and evacuation problems could put the success of the mission at risk, with relevant associated economic and strategic costs. Our study summarizes current evidence about dental problems in isolated personnel (submarines and Antarctic missions) compared to other non-isolation conditions (military deployment in conflict area, military maneuvers) with the objective to assess the need for specific dental equipment in special long-term isolation conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We searched Medline, Cochrane Library, and Dentalgate between 1960 and 2017 for studies reporting dental disease in long-term isolation conditions (minimum 1 month) versus non-isolation conditions. We conducted the systematic review with all studies fitting the inclusion criteria. The comparison of the incidence rate was performed fitting a Poisson regression model to see the effect of the individual's condition on the incidence of dental event. RESULTS: Thirty-eight studies were included in the systematic review. Antarctic missions showed a higher dental incidence rate compared to non-isolation conditions, but submarine missions showed the lowest dental incidence rate. In the sub-analysis of acute dental events, those with great impact on unit effectiveness, the incidence rates were higher. Caries and secondary decay events were the most prevalent dental problem in all conditions, followed by periodontal pathology and fractures of teeth or tooth problems not due to tooth decay in isolation conditions, and then by molar problems and endodontic problems in non-isolation conditions. The most common acute dental events were third molar problems and endodontic problems in all conditions. CONCLUSION: This systematic review shows that the incidence of dental pathology in long-term isolation conditions may seem relatively infrequent but it exists and is relevant. Dental events are unpredictable, unrelated to trauma, and caused mainly by poor dental status. Preventive measures considerably reduce dental prevalence.

Submarine exposure guideline recommendations for carbon dioxide based on the prenatal developmental effects of exposure in rats.

BACKGROUND: To protect crewmember health, the U.S. Navy sets exposure limits for more than 200 components of submarine atmospheres. The addition of females to nuclear submarines required a reevaluation of these exposure limits, originally established for all-male crews. In the case of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), the only available data suitable for deriving an exposure limit were from a 2010 study sponsored by the British Royal Navy that reported a debatable interpretation casting doubt on whether current U.S. Navy exposure limits served to protect fetal developmental health. METHODS: About 120 time-mated female Sprague-Dawley rats (Crl: CD[SD]) were exposed to CO2 at levels of 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5%, and 3.0% from gestation days 6 to 20. Dams were euthanized and fetuses were examined. RESULTS: Findings with implications for exposure limits for CO2 during pregnancy were an increased mean litter proportion of early resorptions and a lower mean litter proportion of viable fetuses in the 3.0% CO2 group. CONCLUSION: The results yield a No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) of 2.5% and a Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level (LOAEL) of 3.0%. The results reasonably allow a point of departure of 2.5% CO2 for deriving an exposure recommendation. An interspecies uncertainty factor was applied to derive a recommended 90-day continuous exposure limit (CEL) of 0.8% for CO2 . As reproductive endpoints that are developmental in nature must be assumed to result from a single exposure at a critical point during gestation, it is further recommended that the 24-hr emergency exposure limit (EEL) also be 0.8%.

Effects of sleep and fatigue on teams in a submarine environment.

Successful submarine operations rely on the performance of tactical teams who must work under conditions of physiological and cognitive fatigue. Sleep loss and circadian disruption contribute to fatigue in this setting and, although the effects of this fatigue have been studied extensively in individuals, little is understood about how fatigue impacts team performance Рespecially in a submarine environment. The present review provides an overview of the fatigue on submarine teams and is divided into four main sections: 1) A discussion of factors that should be considered in team fatigue research. 2) An outline of how sleep and circadian rhythms of submariners are impacted by submarine-specific factors. 3) A discussion of the known effects of fatigue from sleep loss and circadian disruption on individual performance. 4) A consideration of how this fatigue impacts team performance. As the submarine force has recognized the need to protect submariner sleep and improve team dynamics, it is vital that future research accounts for the interplay between these two factors.

Acute Exposure to Low-to-Moderate Carbon Dioxide Levels and Submariner Decision Making.

BACKGROUND: Submarines routinely operate with higher levels of ambient carbon dioxide (CO2) (i.e., 2000 - 5000 ppm) than what is typically considered normal (i.e., 400 - 600 ppm). Although significant cognitive impairments are rarely reported at these elevated CO2 levels, recent studies using the Strategic Management Simulation (SMS) test have found impairments in decision-making performance during acute CO2 exposure at levels as low as 1000 ppm. This is a potential concern for submarine operations, as personnel regularly make mission-critical decisions that affect the safety and efficiency of the vessel and its crew while exposed to similar levels of CO2. The objective of this study was to determine if submariner decision-making performance is impacted by acute exposure to levels of CO2 routinely present in the submarine atmosphere during sea patrols. METHODS: Using a subject-blinded balanced design, 36 submarine-qualified sailors were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 3 CO2 exposure conditions (600, 2500, or 15,000 ppm). After a 45-min atmospheric acclimation period, participants completed an 80-min computer-administered SMS test as a measure of decision making. RESULTS: There were no significant differences for any of the nine SMS measures of decision making between the CO2 exposure conditions. DISCUSSION: In contrast to recent research demonstrating cognitive deficits on the SMS test in students and professional-grade office workers, we were unable to replicate this effect in a submariner population-even with acute CO2 exposures more than an order of magnitude greater than those used in previous studies that demonstrated such effects.Rodeheffer CD, Chabal S, Clarke JM, Fothergill DM. Acute exposure to low-to-moderate carbon dioxide levels and submariner decision making. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2018; 89(6):520-525.